Goma, Congo:
City Air Makes Men Free?

22 January 2002

Ben Wisner
[email][email protected]

Introduction

A series of question come to mind in the face of the damage to a large town
in a volcanic eruption.

Principle question is suggested by the irony of Goethe’s aphorism. Does
“city air make men free” in the case of Goma? Why is Goma where it is?
What was its function in the days of Belgian colonialism? Under Mobutu? In
1994? Now? Is it a life boat for people in a sea of economic and security
threats, or is it a death trap?

Another question concerns “disaster diplomacy” in the broad sense. This is
a very unstable region where there are several armed groups dating from the
terrible events in Rwanda in 1994 and also the civil war within Mobutu’s
Zaire and, after his downfall, within the new Democratic Republic of Congo.
The latter war became internationalized as a number of African countries
became involved on one side or the other. There is presently a cease fire
supervised by the United Nations. Will armed groups take advantage of this
situation to do more than loot, possibly beginning hostilities again? Will
people displaced by the volcano be in danger from armed gangs?

To what extent has this long history of war and instability undermined the
capacity of local government, at municipal level, such as in the sizeable
town (small city) of Goma (pop. 500,000)? Would more municipal capacity
have provided clearer, more timely, and credible warnings and instructions?

A third cluster of questions surround this issue of risk communication. Why
have the population movements sea-sawed back and forth between Rwanda and
Congo? Why don’t displaced persons want to stay in the camps that have been
established for them farther from the volcano, deeper in Rwanda (an
additional 20 km)? What efforts at risk communication have been undertaken?

The Situation

DAMAGE AND ACCESS: The city of Goma in eastern Congo has been cut into
three sections by lava flowing from the Nyiragongo volcano. 30-40 per cent
of Goma has been destroyed and 80% damaged. The airport is inoperable
(runway damage), although it is possibly useable by small aircraft).
(IFRC
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/vID/F86B851F9D19A1F649256B480027BB58?Open
Document )

The main route to the North has been blocked by lava.

DEATHS AND INJURIES: 350,000-500,000 people are affected, 245 reported
dead. (USAID and other sources
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/0cf8d498
1731923b85256b48007e6ce2?OpenDocument )

347 people have been hospitalized in the Rwandan city of Gisenyi
(AFP
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/224a3f7b
7103ab07c1256b48005b3f44?OpenDocument )

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION: There has been much looting. There are also
scattered reports of price rises for staples (salt, sugar) in surrounding
areas. There are no estimates yet of economic loss or total cost of
recovery.

SOME SECONDARY IMPACTS:

· explosion of gasoline tanks at station where looters were trying to siphon
gasoline, ignited by hot lava nearby (approximately 50-100 dead)
· possible contamination of lake Kivu water by lava flow: “Aid workers are
still waiting anxiously for the results of samples taken from Lake Kivu,
from which the lakeside city of some 400,000 residents draws most of its
water. Although all of Goma's water intake plants were untouched by the
lava, water/sanitation experts are fearful that one stream of lava that
flowed into the lake may have introduced chemicals that the filtration
plants were not designed to handle. Appearing on the surface to have cooled
and hardened into rock, steam from the point at which the lava flow entered
the lake indicated that molten lava was still tunneling under this hardened
crust and into the water.” (UN OCHA
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/d85051d9
b8aa821485256b4800715d2a?OpenDocument )
· possible sulphurous gas emissions
· ash fall into lake Kivu
· health problems: “MSF teams are monitoring for cholera, measles and
meningitis. These are the diseases that are ongoing in the war-ravaged
country. In addition, with the degree of volcanic ash and burning buildings
that have accompanied the lava flow, MSF is monitoring respiratory
infections, which are on the increase. On January 23, MSF staff shall
inoculate 5,000 people against polio and measles. These are the people who
have remained in Gisenye in the camps of Mudende and Nkamira. The campaign
is being done at the request of the Ministry of Health and in conjunction
with the World Health Organisation (WHO).” (MSF
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/b997f218
65b10d59c1256b490058f1d5?OpenDocument )
· catastrophic release of carbon dioxide (as in lake Nyos disaster in
Cameroon in 1986): “Fears were also voiced about what effect the molten lava
and seismic activity could have on large pockets of carbon dioxide and
methane gas that lie at the bottom of the lake, possibly leading to giant
explosions that could cause tidal waves or massive releases of toxic gas
that could kill hundreds, if not thousands of people.” (UN OCHA
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/d85051d9
b8aa821485256b4800715d2a?OpenDocument )

LIFE LINE INFRASTRUCTURE: Goma’s water treatment plant has been returned to
service, as has its electrical generating plant.

Health care services are being rehabilitated: “Goma has been cut in half,
West and East. The East can now be fairly easily reached and a
mobile clinic set up by Merlin there saw over 600 patients yesterday. The
West is less accessible and providing aid to the hundreds of thousands
across the hot lava has proved difficult. Merlin however hopes to have an
emergency clinic up and running in the West by
the end of today. Two hospitals in Goma have been destroyed and Bernard
Leflaive, Merlin's Country Manager, is discussing with the 'Docteur Chef de
Zone' (the district medical officer) Merlin's co-operation to support and
rehabilitate the surviving centres. The priority for Merlin is to ensure
that the health centres can be the primary outlet for medical aid so that
the shift in focus can move from emergency clinics to sustainable health
care.” (MERLIN
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/696fe204
d1669763c1256b4900498c66?OpenDocument )

Water lake water has been tested and seems suitable for human consumption
for now. Therefore the IFRC and the local water company have started three
pumping stations. However, 70% of the distribution pipes have been
destroyed or damaged. (IFRC
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/b05922ed
df7ac38885256b49005db276?OpenDocument )

POPULATION MOVEMENTS: Many/ most (?) people who originally fled Goma have
returned despite officials’ worries about possible further eruptions and
other secondary hazards.

Population movements are very complex and rapidly changing and
require further discussion (below).

Population Movements
(IFRC
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/vID/F86B851F9D19A1F649256B480027BB58?Open
Document )

“The town's estimated population of 500,000 people evacuated the area. Some
250,000 crossed to Rwanda at the Gisenyi border; 100,000 moved to the west
and approximately 150,000 remained in and around Goma. As of Saturday 19
January, 300,000 people were reported in Gisenyi and moving towards
Ruhengheri. The situation by Saturday indicated a major displacement crisis.
However, by Sunday afternoon
contacts with the Federation/ICRC/Rwanda Red Cross (RRC) teams in Goma and
Gisenyi revealed a sudden shift with many thousands returning back and forth
between Rwanda and the Congo sides of the border. This included many
crossing to Bukavu. It remains uncertain
tonight (Sunday) if these are permanent returns as Congolese seek
alternatives to staying in Rwanda, or are if they are 'go-see and return'
visits to establish food and water sources. Although the Rwanda authorities
are urging people to remain where aid can more easily reach them, many
appear not to want to. The UN is moving 600 refugees from the stadium in
Ruhengeri to Bukavu.”

Some people are report to have sought refuge in Uganda.
(XINHUA
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/dea3d231
56eead9049256b4900276ce3?OpenDocument )

Background
(Oxfam UK
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/e0a90cc6
096bff1f85256b4800717449?OpenDocument )

“Goma is overshadowed by two large and active volcanoes- Nyiragongo and
Nyamalagira. Part of the former is a large "hanging" crater of lava- said
to be the largest active lava lake in the world. Any weaknesses in the sides
could result in catastrophic consequences.

“The last time the volcano erupted was in 1977- at this time the lava flows
reached the edge of the town; 2,000 deaths were caused in 30 minutes.

“Nyiragongo began erupting on 17th January 2002. Three lava flows came out
of the volcano. The first cut off the road leading out of Goma to the North;
the second cut the road leading out to the West; the third went towards the
airport. Earthquakes and fires were reported across the town; the population
was in panic and fleeing. There is little reliable information on deaths
and injuries resulting from the eruption, or on numbers of people who have
lost their houses.

“The population of Goma is estimated at around 3-400,000 people; Gisenye and
surrounding villages around 100,000.

“Past experience of large scale population movements in the area - where
cholera is endemic - indicate that there is a high risk of water-borne and
hygiene related disease.”

Chronology

1977: volcano disaster that killed 2,000
(“In 1977, about 2,000 people were killed when a lake of lava burst through
fissures in Nyiragongo's flanks at 60 kilometers an hour, which experts said
was the fastest lava flow on record.”
(XINHUA
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/dea3d231
56eead9049256b4900276ce3?OpenDocument )

1994-1996: influx of 800,000 Rwanda genocide refugees, cholera in the camps;
during 1996 attacks of refugee camps

1994: Nyiragongo volcano becomes active again

1996: repatriation of Rwandan refugees from Goma camps

1997-1999: civil war (Mobutu overthrown in 1997, but in 1998 rebels take
control of eastern Congo from the new government)

1999: cease fire

2000: U.N. observers deployed, established as the United Nations
Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC)
(http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/monuc/monuc_body.htm )

2000-2001: some continued fighting and breaches of cease fire

International Response

International response has been fast and generous, but ineffective in
communicating with the evacuees and anticipating their movements (question
of genuine uncertainty – see below).

Many international NGOs and other agencies, including the UN observers have
been on the ground locally for some time. In part the immediate and close
attention to this corner of Africa, and attention in the media, are a
function of the industrial country embarrassment at having failed to
intervene to save the lives of genocide victims in Rwanda in 1994.

Questions

· ROOT CAUSES

Barbara Stocking, Director of Oxfam UK, had it right, in my opinion, during
a BBC radio interview (22 January 2002) broadcast as part of the U.S.
evening news program on National Public Radio, “The World”

She stated (I paraphrase) that the volcano provides an opportunity for the
world to be reminded of the “root causes” of a development and humanitarian
crisis in Congo that has been going on for many years. The war (or wars) in
Congo is a root cause. Digging even deeper, one has to ask why fight over
Congo. Ms. Stocking is direct and to the point: copper, diamonds, and gold.

Many of the other questions that arise in the Goma situation have as their
backdrop the historical “scramble for Africa”, the “second scramble” that
includes Cold War support for the kleptocratic Mobutu dictatorship, and the
most recent phases of the armed struggle over this huge territory and its
riches.

[On the “scramble for Africa” see:
http://www.cusd.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/projects/scramble/ ]

· MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE

What was the nature of municipal government in Goma? Where was municipal
government in this crisis? Warnings? Evacuation? Protection against
looting? Health services? Liaison with relief agencies?

· NATIONAL ORDER AND THE STATE

There is no national Congo state activity so far. How will one evaluate the
performance of the rebel force as a de facto government? Looting?
Evacuation? Control of price gouging? Shelter and assistance for
displaced?

It is still unclear what national and other Rwandan authorities have done in
this crisis. Goma’s residents had experience of being on host to Rwandan
refugees from 1994-96, when 800,000 sought refuge and were accommodated near
Goma. This may color Goma Congolese perceptions and attitudes toward being
“a refugee”. “I'd prefer to die here than stay as a refugee there," said
27-year-old Wamos Mubibya, a hotel management student. (Quote from REUTERS
account of Goma residents’ spurning the UN camps set up for them in Rwanda:
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/dbf3583
a0ccae37885256b47006442f0?OpenDocument ).

The experience of having the cholera-ridden, internally-violent camps on
their doorstep for two years, as well as complex international alliances in
the more recent civil war, may be affecting people’s decisions about where
to seek shelter. “Most of the Congolese would rather risk the threat of
another volcanic eruption than be far from their homes in what is perceived
to be a hostile country," one aid worker said. "People have bad memories of
the refugee camps that were established following the 1994 genocide in
Rwanda.” (UN OCHA, quoting an unidentified relief worker,
http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/480fa8736b88bbc3c12564f6004c8ad5/d85051d9
b8aa821485256b4800715d2a?OpenDocument ).

The national government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has sent
word from Kinshasa that it is ready to provide relief assistance to Goma.
However a spokesperson for the rebels that control the town has said that
such assistance must come without any conditions. There is clearly a lot of
suspicion that the national government might use its relief aid as a
propaganda tool in its favor or, worse, take the unstable volcano crisis as
an opportunity to begin another offensive to win back rebel-held territory.

Apart from the continuing tension between rebels that control this part of
eastern Congo and the DRC National Government, there are still Congolese
Mayi-Mayi militias, as well as remnants of the Rwandan Hutu Interahamwe and
ex-FAR active in the area. “We must consider the possibility that these
groups could take advantage of the prevailing confusion to launch an
offensive" against the Rwandan-backed Rassemblement congolais pour la
democratie-Goma that controls a large swathe of the eastern DRC.” (UN OCHA:
see url address above)

One report of Ugandan officials closing some border crossing points to
refugees, later another report of displaced Goma residents being allowed to
cross into Uganda. What is Uganda’s role? Have Tanzania or Burundi
offered any assistance?

South Africa is “drafting plans” for assistance. (There are RSA troops on
peace keeping mission in nearby Burundi.)

Is this an opportunity for strengthening intra-African ties and building
capacity for mutual assistance? The time is ripe, given the re-emergence of
a form of Pan-Africanism (e.g. reorganization of the Organization of African
Unity into an African Union, emergence of pan-African economic and human
development plans such as Plan Omega, the Millennium Plan, and The New
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), as well as several
African-brokered peace initiatives (Burundi, Somalia, etc.).

· PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE

What volcanological monitoring had been going on? By whom? What process led
to warnings? How was the location of the refugee camps decided? How were
decisions made about the potability of lake water, the probability of more
eruptions, the release of toxic gases?

As with the question of material assistance, there needs to be clear
channels of communication and coordination. Is this a case of too many
scientific opinions being offered? Too few? Of conflicting scientific
judgements?

There seems to be genuine scientific uncertainty in this case. There is a
difference of opinion about whether this was even a volcanic eruption (in
the strict sense) or release of magma in the course of a series of
earthquakes. However, lack of adequate communication among international,
national (Rwandan), rebel leaders in control of Goma, and Goma’s municipal
authorities seem to have magnified this uncertainty.

Above all, there appears to have been no plan for effective communication
with the population. The population fled in several directions and by
several means:

· By boat to down lake Kivu to Bukavu
· By land down eastern shore of lake Kivu to Bukavu
· By land to Gisenyi in Rwanda

Many returned to Goma within a few days.

What authority is trying to communicate risks and opportunities to these
people? What is the basis for their decisions?

What is the role of the church, of local NGOs (I have only seen one local
NGO mentioned so far on ReliefWeb: Amis de Kivu, as well, of course, the
Congolese Red Cross).

Because of the past history of international NGO involvement with the
genocide refugees from 1994 and UN involvement in peace keeping, there was
an unusually large concentration of international agencies on the ground in
Goma and nearby. Did this speed the response? Did it simplify or
complicate the response?

· RECOVERY

What was the status quo ante? Is that to be the goal of recovery? What was
municipal capacity before? What was scientific capacity? If one agrees
with Oxfam UK director, Barbara Stocking, that the prior situation was, in
itself, a human development disaster, then what should the goal of recovery
be?

In the future there will be an on-going volcano treat. (With the next heavy
rain will there be mass movements of cement-like ash called lahar?) Are
there more and less exposed sited in greater Goma? Have they been mapped?
Will people be resettled there? How?

Concluding Thoughts

Many cities “live with volcanoes”. There are dozens of examples in the
Caribbean, Central America, the Andes, Philippines, Indonesia, and Japan.
Seattle sits within view of Mt. Rainer, and Quito just below Pinchicha.
Think of Hilo, Hawaii; San Salvador, El Salvador; Puebla, Mexico; or
Kagoshima, Japan. What can they teach Goma? What are the preconditions for
Goma’s being able to institutionalize such lessons?

In this context an interesting comparison presents itself. As one looks
back a few years hence at the recovery process on the Caribbean island of
Montserrat, where the principle city was destroyed, and the recovery of
Goma, how will the two compare?

On a more philosophical note, a few questions about urbanism and
urbanization suggest themselves. Throughout history cities have served
regions of towns, villages, homesteads. They have had links with other
cities of the same size and larger ones. They have been part of networks.

Cities have economic, administrative, military, and social functions.

Presumably Goma has been such a city? Has it slowly ceased to be a city in
any of those senses since 1994? If so, can it be such a city again?

Does one perhaps need a new name for a new kind of city: isolated by
disintegration of the national state administrative and economic network?
Maintained by the economic activity of foreign relief agencies, militias,
and peace keepers? At risk to a wide variety of natural and technological
hazards because of the deterioration of managerial capacity, economic
viability, and deterioration of infrastructure?

Serajevo? Kandahar? Mogadishu? Now: Goma?